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honen.com/learn/chemistry-lab-safety-primer

Hazards and controls

2 min read270 words

Every student who walks into a teaching lab encounters the same hazards. How well they recognize and respond to them depends on what they learn before they arrive.

Reading the labels

The Globally Harmonized System assigns a pictogram to every major hazard class. Flammable, corrosive, toxic, oxidizing, and pressurized gases each have a distinct symbol you should be able to identify without reading the text.

In a teaching lab those symbols appear on reagent bottles, prep-room shelves, and storage cabinets. Before your first session, work through the nine GHS pictograms until they are automatic. Lab accidents rarely announce themselves slowly.

Safety Data Sheets and why you need them

A Safety Data Sheet for every reagent used in the department is available in the prep room and on the chemistry department portal. Section 2 lists hazard identification. Section 8 lists exposure controls and PPE. Section 13 covers disposal.

Faculty and TAs are responsible for knowing Sections 2, 8, and 13 before running any procedure. Students are expected to read the SDS for any reagent they handle independently. Ignorance is not a defense in a chemical exposure incident.

Matching PPE to the hazard

Nitrile gloves protect against most aqueous solutions and mild organics. They do not protect against chlorinated solvents, concentrated acids, or cryogenic materials. Knowing the limitation is as important as wearing the glove.

Eye protection is required from the moment you enter the lab, not just when you start a reaction. Splash goggles, not safety glasses, are required for any procedure involving open vessels of corrosive or volatile reagents. Lab coats cover skin. Closed-toe shoes are mandatory.

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honen.com/learn/introduction-to-photosynthesis

Introduction to Photosynthesis

3 min read458 words

What is Photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis is the biological process by which green plants, algae, and certain bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose. It is one of the most important biochemical processes on Earth.

Fun Fact

Photosynthesis produces approximately 300 billion tons of sugar each year - enough to fuel virtually all life on the planet.

The Two Stages

Photosynthesis occurs in two main stages:

  1. •Light-Dependent Reactions - Occur in the thylakoid membranes
  2. •Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle) - Occur in the stroma

A diagram showing the two stages of photosynthesis: light reactions in the thylakoid membrane producing ATP and NADPH, and the Calvin Cycle in the stroma using those products to fix CO2 into glucose.

A diagram showing the two stages of photosynthesis: light reactions in the thylakoid membrane producing ATP and NADPH, and the Calvin Cycle in the stroma using those products to fix CO2 into glucose.
A diagram showing the two stages of photosynthesis: light reactions in the thylakoid membrane producing ATP and NADPH, and the Calvin Cycle in the stroma using those products to fix CO2 into glucose.

The Chemical Equation

The overall equation for photosynthesis can be written as:

6CO2+6H2O+light energy→C6H12O6+6O26CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{light energy} \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2

This tells us that carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of light, produce glucose and oxygen.

Chlorophyll

The green pigment found in chloroplasts that absorbs light energy (primarily red and blue wavelengths) and reflects green light, giving plants their characteristic color.

Light-Dependent Reactions

These reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes and require direct sunlight:

  • •Photosystem II (PSII) absorbs light at 680 nm
  • •Water molecules are split (photolysis): 2H2O→4H++4e−+O22H_2O \rightarrow 4H^+ + 4e^- + O_2
  • •Photosystem I (PSI) absorbs light at 700 nm
  • •NADP⁺ is reduced to NADPH

Key Insight

The oxygen we breathe is actually a byproduct of photosynthesis - it comes from the splitting of water molecules, not from CO₂.

The Calvin Cycle

The Calvin Cycle uses the ATP and NADPH from the light reactions to fix carbon dioxide into organic molecules:

Plain Text
Step 1: Carbon Fixation
  CO₂ + RuBP → 2 molecules of 3-PGA
  (Catalyzed by RuBisCO)

Step 2: Reduction
  3-PGA → G3P (using ATP and NADPH)

Step 3: Regeneration
  G3P → RuBP (using ATP)

For every 3 molecules of CO₂ that enter the cycle, 1 molecule of G3P is produced. It takes 2 G3P molecules to make one glucose.

Common Misconception

The Calvin Cycle is sometimes called the "dark reactions," but this is misleading. While it doesn't directly require light, it depends on ATP and NADPH from the light reactions and typically occurs during the day.

Why Photosynthesis Matters

"Photosynthesis is the most important chemical reaction on Earth - it provides the food and oxygen that sustain nearly all life."

  • •Neil Campbell, Biology

Photosynthesis is foundational because it:

  1. •Produces oxygen for aerobic organisms
  2. •Fixes carbon from the atmosphere into organic molecules
  3. •Provides energy that flows through food chains
  4. •Regulates climate by removing CO₂ from the atmosphere
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